Microorganisms: Infectious Disease and Ecology

Blog entries about bacteria, viruses, fungi and other microorganisms.

Avoid the Summertime Blue-Greens— Know about Cyanobacteria Before You Hit the Water

Posted on by Kelly Grooms
Warning sign reading "ALGAE BLOOM – NO SWIMMING" posted in a lake with visible green algae floating on the water's surface, surrounded by lily pads and aquatic plants under a clear blue sky.

The weather is warming up (at least in the Northern Hemisphere). There is nothing more refreshing on a hot summer day than a dip in cool lake waters, so people everywhere are digging out their swimsuits and hitting the beach. Unfortunately, the same warm temperatures that drive us to the beach can also cause a potentially deadly overgrowth of blue-green algae —also called harmful algal blooms (HABs)—in the water of our favorite pond or lake.

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What’s Hiding in Your Mussels? 

Posted on by Shannon Sindermann
mussels

Fresh mussels might be a delicacy in many parts of the world, but a new study from Italy suggests they could also be carriers of something much less appetizing: infectious viruses and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Published in Food and Environmental Virology, Venuti et al. (2025) investigated 60 mussel batches originating from the Campania (Southern Italy), Lazio and Puglia regions—and what they found raises important questions about food safety and environmental monitoring. 

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Measles and Immunosuppression—When Getting Well Means You Can Still Get Sick

Posted on by Kelly Grooms
26062330-March-7-Kelly-600x900-WEB

In 2000 measles was officially declared eliminated in the United States (1), meaning there had been no disease transmission for over 12 months. Unfortunately, recent years have shown us it was not gone for good. So far in 2025 there have been 6 outbreaks and 607 cases. Five hundred and sixty-seven of these cases (93%) are associated with an outbreak; seventy-four (12%) cases have resulted in hospitalization, and there has been one confirmed death, with another death under investigation (as of April 3, 2025; 2).  For comparison, there were two hundred and eighty-five total cases in 2024; one hundred and ninety-eight (69%) were associated with outbreaks; one hundred and fourteen (40%) cases resulted in hospitalization. There were no deaths (2).  

Help in Limiting a Dangerous Childhood Disease

Before the development of a vaccine in the 1960s, measles was practically a childhood rite of passage. This common childhood disease is not without teeth however. One out of every 20 children with measles develops pneumonia, 1 out of every 1,000 develops encephalitis (swelling of the brain), and 1 to 3 of every 1,000 dies from respiratory and neurological complications (3). In the years before a vaccine was available, it is estimated that there were between 3.5 and 5 million measles cases per year. (4). The first measles vaccine was licensed in the U.S. by John Enders in 1963, and not surprisingly, after the measles vaccine became widely used, the number of cases of measles plummeted. By 1970, there were under 1,000 cases (2).

Decreased Childhood Mortality from Other Infectious Diseases—An Unexpected Benefit

Surprisingly, with the disappearance of this childhood disease the number of childhood deaths from all infectious diseases dropped dramatically. As vaccination programs were instituted in England and parts of Europe, the same phenomenon was observed. Reduction or elimination of measles-related illness and death alone can’t explain the size of the decrease in childhood mortality. Although measles infection is associated with suppression of the immune system that will make the host vulnerable to other infections, these side effects were assumed to be short lived. In reality, the drop in mortality from infectious diseases following vaccination for measles lasted for years, not months (5).

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One Health and H5N1: Promega’s Commitment to Holistic Solutions

Posted on by Promega

The global outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) underscores the critical importance of proactive and integrated health strategies. With its zoonotic potential, the H5N1 virus affects diverse animal populations and poses significant risks to human health, ecosystems, and economies worldwide. At Promega, we are dedicated to equipping researchers and public health professionals with the tools they need to navigate and address these complex challenges.

Understanding H5N1 and Its Impact

A Global Challenge

The H5N1 outbreak has led to the depopulation of over 300 million birds across 108 countries, spanning five continents. The virus has infected over 500 bird species and at least 70 mammalian species, including endangered California condors and polar bears (1). The virus has had significant economic repercussions, particularly in the poultry industry, with 168 million birds culled in the United States to date (2). Recent human infections, primarily among farm workers, highlight the need for continued vigilance and robust surveillance systems.

The One Health initiative takes a holistic approach to managing disease outbreaks such as bird flu.
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Can Fungi Help Clean Up Environmental Contaminants? 

Posted on by Shannon Sindermann
Fly agaric or Fly amanita (Amanita muscaria) is a basidiomycete of the genus Amanita.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widespread environmental pollutants found in industrial waste, fossil fuel combustion and creosote-treated wood, to name a few. Due to these industrial activities, there are multiple pathways for human exposure. These compounds pose significant health risks due to their carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic properties yet removing them from contaminated sites remains a challenge. Traditional remediation techniques, such as dredging and chemical treatment, are costly and can further disrupt ecosystems (1).  

Mycoremediation—using fungi to break down pollutants into intermediates with lower environmental burden—offers a sustainable, low-cost alternative for PAH degradation. While past research focused on basidiomycete fungi like white rot fungi, these have been unreliable in large-scale field applications. This study investigates an alternative approach: leveraging naturally occurring ascomycete fungi from creosote-contaminated sediments to enhance PAH degradation (1). 

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Understanding and Combating Legionella in Water Systems with Viability PCR

Posted on by Anna Bennett

Water plays a vital role in countless aspects of daily life—drinking, cooling, recreation and more. However, the same systems that deliver these benefits can also harbor Legionella, a waterborne bacteria responsible for Legionnaires’ disease, a severe form of pneumonia (1). Legionella thrives in stagnant aquatic environments, many of which are human-made and common in modern infrastructure, like in cooling towers, hot tubs and complex building water systems. In this blog, we explore the risks posed by Legionella, the limitations of traditional detection methods and how advanced tools at Promega are transforming water safety monitoring. 

3D illustration showing legionella pneumophilia bacteria in water
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Don’t Flush Your Kitty Litter! Toxoplasmosis Is a Growing Threat to Sea Otters and Other Marine Mammals

Posted on by Kelly Grooms
Sea otter in water with an overlay of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts.

Southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis), endangered marine mammals along California’s coastlines, are facing an unexpected threat. The menace comes not from pollution, habitat loss or natural predators, but from a microscopic enemy—Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). This protozoan parasite, typically associated with domestic cats, has found its way into marine ecosystems with sometimes deadly consequences for sea otters. Recently, scientists identified transmission of virulent, atypical strains of T. gondii from terrestrial felids to sea otters along the southern California coast, with lethal consequences (1).

Understanding T. gondii and Its Hosts

T. gondii is a versatile parasite that can infect nearly all warm-blooded animals, including humans and marine mammals. However, the T. gondii lifecycle depends upon felids (e.g., domestic cats and their wild relatives) who serve as definitive hosts. It is in their intestines that the parasite completes its sexual reproductive stage. The resulting oocysts are excreted in the animals’ feces. T. gondii oocysts exhibit remarkable resilience, surviving in soil, freshwater and seawater for extended periods. They are even resistant to standard wastewater treatment processes, which means oocysts in cat waste disposed of by flushing will pass through the treatment plant and be discharged into the environment. ​(2,3).

Oocysts can also be washed from soil contaminated with cat waste and carried via storm drains and rivers into the ocean, dispersing them into coastal waters. Once there, the oocysts settle on kelp or in sediments where they can be picked up by marine invertebrates like snails, mussels and clams. Marine mammals such as sea otters become infected when they consume these contaminated invertebrates. Otters can also ingest oocysts during grooming sessions​ (1,3).

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Exploring the Respiratory Virus Landscape: Pre-Pandemic Data and Pandemic Preparedness

Posted on by Michele Arduengo
influenza viruses are part of the worldwide respiratory virus landscape

Since the COVID-19 pandemic, public health researchers and research scientists have sought more urgently to understand the worldwide respiratory virus landscape. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced us to re-evaluate our global public health priorities and activities. Additionally, acute respiratory tract infections are one of the leading causes of illness and death worldwide, particularly in developing countries. To really understand what changed with the pandemic and how we can best respond going forward, we need to understand what the baseline landscape was before the pandemic. Studies using samples that were collected prior to the pandemic are essential to this effort.

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Tardigrade Proteins Might Solve the Cold Chain Problem for Biologics

Posted on by Kelly Grooms
image depicting a microscopic tardigrade

Some of our most advanced medicines today rely on components derived from living organisms. These therapeutics, called biologics, include things like vaccines, blood products like Human Blood Clotting Factor VIII (FVIII), antibodies and stem cells. Biologics are incredibly temperature sensitive, which means they need to be kept cold during production, transport and storage, a process collectively called the cold chain. The stringent transport and storage temperature requirements for biologics create a barrier to accessing these lifesaving options; particularly for those in remote or underdeveloped regions, where maintaining a cold chain is logistically difficult and costly.

But what if we could break the cold chain? Inspired by one of the most resilient creatures on Earth – the tardigrade – scientists at the University of Wyoming are exploring ways to do just that.

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Extreme Makeover, Epidemic Edition: Can Ants Modify Their Nests for Survival?  

Posted on by Shannon Sindermann
Ants on a hill

Imagine if your first instinct during an epidemic wasn’t to wear a mask or stock up on groceries, but instead to start rearranging and remodeling your house. As it turns out, researchers have found that black garden ants (Lasius niger) do exactly that when confronted with the threat of disease. These tiny architects instinctively spring into action, redesigning their nests in various ways to slow the spread of infection and protect their crowded colonies where diseases can easily spread.  

Read more about the research and see how these findings offer insights into how spatial changes – both in ants and potentially in human environments – can help limit the risks of infection.  

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